= Novgorod =
[c] Pre- and Early-history [c]
The suroundings of Novgorod is marked by many forrests, lakes, swamps and marshes, which make the area almost impenetrable and the rivers therefore the most important traffic route. Aboard these rivers and lakes the only suitable places for settlement were located.
Near Novgorod a neolithic settlement existed since the 3rd millennium BC. The first settlers in the area to the north of the lake Ilmen belonged to the Finno-Ugric language group as hunter gatherers. Newcomers introduced the cultivation of land. Sint the 8th or early 9th century Slavic lake Ilmen Slovenes settled there.
[c] Nowgorodian Rus [c]
Since the 8th century the skandinavian Varangian traveld through this area on their trade journeys to the Bynzantene realm. In the middle of the 9th century such a settlement, now called Rurikowo Gorodischtsche, was established on the east border of the Wolchow at the outflow of lake Ilmen, two kilometers south of the current Novgorod. This settlement first became the central trading spot of the region.
For the year 862 this settlement is first documented in old Russion chronicles. The Varagian prince Rurik established here the center of his reign.
[c] Princely state within Kievan Rus' [c]
In 882, Rurik's successor, Oleg of Novgorod, conquered Kiev and founded the state of Kievan Rus'. In 911 Oleg moved the center of his reign to Kiev Novgorod's size as well as its political, economic, and cultural influence made it the second most important city in Kievan Rus'.
The town was very appealing for the Russian dynasties. In the years between 970 and 990 the sons of the prince of Kiev, Swjatoslaw I. Igorewitsch, Wladimir I. und Jaropolk I., eked out the right to supply the prince of Novgorod. In 969 Wladimir I. became the first independent prince of Novgorod.
In 988/989 Novgorod became the second seat of the Eparchie (bishoperic) of the Rus. The first bishop was Joachim Korsunianin.
At about the same time a merchant settlement developed in some distance, the current Novgorod (New-town).
The first churches were a wooden Cathredral for Saint Sophia and one for Saint Joachim and Anna, whose dedication is linked to the name of the first bishop of Novgorod.
Jaroslaws' reign lasted til 1015, when he tried to achieve control over Kiev after the death of his father. Because the citizens of Novgorod supported him in this successful undertaking, he granted the city extensive rights, which formed the basis of the future Bojarian regime in Novgord.
The privileges, Jaroslaw granted the Bojarian, caused a structural division of the city. The homesteads of the Bojares were not under the jurisdiction of the monarch and formed the basis of the system of quarters called "ends". Between those "ends" however free artists and merchents settled, who were under the monarchs jurisdiction. These areas were split in groups of hundreds (sotni) and administerd by the so called stewards of thousands (tysjazkie) and stewards of hundreds (sotskie)
In the year 1030, when Jaroslav visitied the town, he decreed that 300 children and older people and the priest should be instructed systematically in reading. Based on archaeological findings even for the time before that education efforts are documented. In that period also the tansfer of the royal household of Gorodischtsch to Novgorod happened, where opposite the trading side of the Kreml a housing was established which was named after Jorasloav.
The social structure was divided into three tiers: rich merchants and financiers (concomitant land-owner) made up the top; common merchants were representatives of the middle tier; craftsmen and day labourers belonged to the lower class of population.
The trade as well as the culture flourished. Therefore famous icon artists like Theophanes the Greek and Andrei Rubjow appeared in the city. In 1056/1057 the transcript of the Ostromir-gospel was copied for the steward Ostromir. The content of this manuscript is a church slavic Aprakos-gospel, which was copied of a south slavic template.
In the High medieval time Novgorod was the only city in Europe beside Constantinople, where not only the clergy and the royality but also the common people could read and write. Among other this is documented by more than 1000 letters written in old Novograd dialect on birch barks (the so called birch bark letters), that were found on archaeological digs. Those talk about the daily life in the medieval town. On 26th July 1951 on a dig by Nina Akulowa in the street Welikja the first birch bark fragments were found. In the meantime more than 1000 such fragments are known.
The fies of the Novgorod regents to the city is also manifested in the fact that Novgorod was repeatedly their shelter. In 1000 Olav I. escaped there and from 1027 - 1030 Olav II. Haraldsson. His son Magnus I was educated in Novgorod till 1035 and was fetched back after the murder of his father by norwegian noblemen. Harald III. also seeked shelter in Novgorod when there was danger. Olav I. Tryggvason and Magnus I. spent their childhood and adolescence there and had all of their life ad close connection to the city.
[c] Novgorod Republic of 1136 till 1478 [c]
In the year 1136 a general insurrection against the royalty ended with the Bojares winning. In the following the monarch was only a magistrate of the Bojar republic. However he still could work in his capacity as judge if his verdict was confirmed by the Possadnik, the supreme ruler of the Bajar council, which increasingly led the foreign policy, dispensed justice, headed the army and staffed the offices and thereby taking over the role of the monarch. As a direct consequence of the revolt prince Wsewolod II. was banished and Olegowitsch from Tschernigov was appointed. The second most important office was held by the Tysjachiy, the steward of thousand, who led the contigent of the citizen and was responsible for taxes, tolls and the market. The diocese founded in 1035 became an archbishopric in 1165.
Spared of the devastation of the Hun raids Novgorod became part of the time, especially with Alexander Newski, the center of the Russian principalities and seat of the grand duke. Begining with Alecander Newski the princes of Novgorod where elected from the ranks of the princes of Wladimir-Susdal. The city became on of the biggest city states and reached a territory of 30'000 square km expansion, further 1.5 million square km onto the Ural were in a tributary dependency. In the 14th century the older name part 'wliki' was interpreted as great as a means to separate Greater Novgorod from other cities. The town area reached 400 ha in the 14th century, with the city castle (detinec) having alone 11ha. The number of inhabitants increased from approx. 50-60'000 in the 13th century to 80'000 in the 15th century. With that it was bigger than the most important large German cities like Cologne, Nuremberg or Lübeck.
The expansion of power based on this development allowed the city to defeat the expansion of Sweden in 1240 and of the Teutonic Order in 1242 by military means. Alltogether Novgorod waged war against Sweden 26 times and 11 times agains the Livonian Brothers of the Sword. The defence of 1240 and 1242 succeeded even though Novgorods German opponent, who exploited the Mongol invasion of the Rus, together with the Danes and Swedes moved their military operations into the realm of Novgorod. Their campaigns however fell apart in the battle on the Newa and the battle on lake Peipus. On 12 August 1323 the treaty of Nöteborg was signed between Sweden and Novgorod, defining for the first time the border between the Russian and Swedish part of Finland.
In the late medieval period Novgorod was dominated by the royal merchant class, which was largely composed of large land owners and profited to a high degree from the gains out of tributes. At their side was the class of the full-time traders, which mainly operated trading with the west. The Wetsche, a moot based on ol slavic traditions, posed as counterbalance, there were also non noble classes entitled to speech and vote. The oligarchic city republic, that elected the monarch since the 12th century and since 1156 the archbishop and the Possadniks, a kind of mayor, had good relations with the Hanseatic League, which maintained their four branch offices at the Peterhof.
During the 14th century Novgorod finally became the main trade broker with the west. Because the transit trading from the Russian realm and also the Tatars, who traded spices and furs, with western Europe through the Lithuanian territory was often hindered by high tolls and frequent attacks, therefore this premier position of Novgorod still remained undisputed in the time to come.
[c] Trade with Gotland and the Hanseatic League [c]
Already for the 10th century relations of foreign merchants with Novgorod are documented. Ravnur Hólmgarðsfari, mentioned in the Färinga legend, from the Norwegian Tønsberg, has the nordic designation for Novgorod in his name, which therefore means traveler to Novgorod.
After the foundation of Lübeck the Hanseatic merchants started in the middle of the 12th century to travel through the Baltic sea to Gotland. Through the traders there first contacts were established to Novgorod. The merchants from Gotland had the so called Gotenhof on the trading side of the town, where at first the Hanseatic merchants joined in its use. In addition there was also the Guild court of Gotland. In the year 1192 the Hanseatic League established it's own court, the Peterhof. The name of the trading office stems from the St. Peters church which was inside it. The establishment provided beside lodging and trading buildings also a backery, a brewery, an infermery, a bath and a prison. The Hanseatic merchants had jurisdiction in their court, but also had to insure legal order. However the merchants were not allowed to stay in Novgorod permanently, based on the Schra of Novgorod. Based on the season there were winter- and summer- travelers. The Traders mainly transported raw materials to Western Europe, especially fur, wax, honey and wood. In the other direction they brought mainly processed goods to Novgorod like wine, beer, cloth, weapons and glass, but also salt, herring, metal (silver),  spices, southern fruits, horses and amber. When in 1230 a big famine broke out they mainly brought in grain. After the downfall of the Olafshof of Gotland in the 14th century, which was then leased by the Hanseatic League, they gained the monopoly in trading with Novgorod. The ship type of the cog also attributed to the enforcement of this monopoly. For the period between 1396 and 1462 the import of glass products like rings and window panes is archaeological documented. In the 15th century the trade receeded as the trading with the Livonian cities grew and gained importance. The Peterhof was not closed after the conquer of Novgorod by the grand duke of Moskau Ivan III. in 1478. In the contrary the priviledges of the Hanseatic League were renewed in 1487. Due to disputes with Maximilian of Habsburg, Ivan III. closed the court on November 6th 1494. The confiscation yielded 96'000 Mark for the grand duke. In 1514 the Gotenhof and Peterhof were reopened and seemed to be used till 1560.
[c] Coinage and long-distance trading [c]
The city of Novgorod, due to its strong trading relations with foreign merchants, was the origin fro the development of coinage in Russia. Since the second half of the 13th century it was custom to use bars of silver as monetary unit. The weight of these pole bars was 205 gramm, corresponding to the old Russian weight unit Griwna. For smaller trading transaction smaller silver pieces were cut of the larger bars, they were named Rubel. In the 13./14. century the first coins were cast in northwestern Russia, first in Novgorod and Pskow, later also in Moskau, Nischni Novgorod and Sasdal.
When in the beginning of the 15th century the circulation of money increased and all grand dukes started to cast coins, Novgorod started in 1420 to cast their own coins. Before that Novgorod hat adapted for a short period the Livonian currency.
Between the 10th and the 13th century mainly amphora, glass products slate spindle whorl and walnuts from the Byzantine realm reached the city. From the area of the Dnjeper amber was imported, which existed there in geological layers. Around 1100 the import was shortly interrupted which can be explained by the conflict between the cities Kiev and Wolchow. After the destruction of Kiev in 1240 by the Mongols the Dnjeper route lost its importance, where as the Wolga route was still used through which boxtree wood was imported for the production of combs. Especially in the 14th century enamelled pottery from Tatarenchanat of the Golden Horde reached Novgorod through this route.
[https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weliki_Nowgorod#Geschichte, 2016-02-10]